Like Max mentioned, most of the stuff we have now is still awfully primitive. At least in the sense that devices like the Emotiv are basically near-medical-grade EEG devices. They are one-way, and they provide extremely little insight into the act.

Medical ultrasound (also known as diagnostic sonography or ultrasonography) is a technique based on the application of. It is used to create an image of internal body structures such as, joints, blood vessels, and internal organs. Its aim is often to find a source of a disease or to exclude. The practice of examining women using ultrasound is called, and was an early development and application of clinical ultrasonography.refers to with which are higher than those audible to humans (20,000 Hz).

Ultrasonic images, also known as sonograms, are made by sending pulses of ultrasound into using a. The ultrasound off tissues with different reflection properties and are recorded and displayed as an image.Many different types of images can be formed. The commonest is a B-mode image (Brightness), which displays the acoustic impedance of a two-dimensional cross-section of tissue.

Other types can display, motion of tissue over time, the location of blood, the presence of specific molecules, the, or the.Compared to other dominant methods of medical imaging, ultrasound has several advantages. It provides images in real-time and is portable and can be brought to the bedside. It is substantially lower in cost than other imaging modalities and does not use harmful. Drawbacks include various limits on its field of view, such as the need for patient cooperation, dependence on physique, difficulty imaging structures behind and air, and the necessity of a skilled operator, usually a trained professional. Contents.By organ or system Sonography (ultrasonography) is widely used in. It is possible to perform both and, using ultrasound to guide interventional procedures such as or drainage of fluid collections.

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Are medical professionals who perform scans which are then traditionally interpreted by radiologists, physicians who specialize in the application and interpretation of a wide variety of medical imaging modalities, or by cardiologists in the case of cardiac ultrasonography (echocardiography). Increasingly, clinicians (physicians and other healthcare professionals who provide direct patient care) are using the ultrasound in office and hospital practice (Point of Care Ultrasound).Sonography is effective for imaging soft tissues of the body. Superficial structures such as, and parathyroid glands, and the brain are imaged at a higher (7–18 MHz), which provides better linear (axial) and horizontal (lateral). Deeper structures such as liver and kidney are imaged at a lower frequency 1–6 MHz with lower axial and lateral resolution as a price of deeper tissue penetration.A general-purpose ultrasound transducer may be used for most imaging purposes but specialty applications may require the use of a specialty transducer.

Most ultrasound procedures are done using a transducer on the surface of the body, but improved diagnostic confidence is often possible if a transducer can be placed inside the body. For this purpose, specialty transducers, including endovaginal, endorectal, and transducers are commonly employed. At the extreme, very small transducers can be mounted on small diameter catheters and placed into blood vessels to image the walls and disease of those vessels.Anesthesiology In, ultrasound is commonly used to guide the placement of needles when placing local anaesthetic solutions near. It is also used for vascular access such as central venous and difficult. Is frequently used by neuro-anesthesiologists for obtaining information about flow-velocity in the basal.Angiology (vascular). Further information: andIn or medicine, (B Mode imaging combined with Doppler flow measurement) is used to diagnose arterial and venous disease.

This is particularly important in, where ultrasound is used for assessing blood flow and stenoses in the carotid arteries and intracerebral arteries.( IVUS) uses a specially designed, with a miniaturized probe attached to its distal end, which is then threaded inside a blood vessel. The proximal end of the is attached to computerized equipment and allows the application of technology, such as or, to visualize the (inner wall) of in living individuals.In the case of the common and potentially, serious problem of blood clots in the deep veins of the leg, plays a key diagnostic role, while focuses on more to assist with planning of suitable interventions to relieve symptoms or improve cosmetics.Cardiology (heart). Further information: andand are frequently used in. In abdominal sonography, the solid organs of the abdomen such as the, and are imaged.

However, sound waves are blocked by gas in the and attenuated to differing degrees by fat, sometimes limiting diagnostic capabilities in this area. The can sometimes be seen when inflamed (as in e.g.: ) and ultrasound is the initial imaging choice, avoiding unnecessary radiation, although it frequently needs to be followed by other imaging methods such as.

Is used particularly in the investigation of anorectal symptoms such as. It images the immediate anatomy and is able to detect occult defects such as tearing of the. Allows for both detection and characterization. Gynecology and obstetrics.

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Main articles: andexamines female pelvic organs (specifically the, and ) as well as the,. It commonly uses transducers designed for approaches through the lower abdominal wall, curvilinear and sector, and specialty transducers such as.was originally developed in the late 1950’s and 60’s by Sir and is commonly used during to check on the development and presentation of the. It can be used to identify many conditions that could be potentially harmful to the mother and/or baby possibly remaining undiagnosed or with delayed diagnosis in the absence of sonography.

It is currently believed that the risk of leaving these conditions undiagnosed is greater than the small risk, if any, associated with undergoing an ultrasound scan. Neck ultrasound.Most structures of the neck, including the and, and, are well-visualized by high-frequency ultrasound with exceptional anatomic detail. Ultrasound is the preferred imaging modality for thyroid tumors and lesions, and ultrasonography is critical in the evaluation, preoperative planning, and postoperative surveillance of patients with. Many other benign and malignant conditions in the head and neck can be evaluated and managed with the help of diagnostic ultrasound and ultrasound-guided procedures.Neonatology In, can be used for basic assessment of intracerebral structural abnormalities, bleeds, or and anoxic insults. The ultrasound can be performed through the soft spots in the skull of a newborn infant until these completely close at about 1 year of age and form a virtually impenetrable acoustic barrier for the ultrasound.

The most common site for is the anterior fontanelle. The smaller the fontanelle, the poorer the quality of the picture.Ophthalmology ( eyes) In and, there are two major forms of eye exam using ultrasound:., commonly referred to as an A-scan (short for Amplitude scan). It is an that provides data on the length of the, which is a major determinant in especially for determining the power of an intraocular lens after cataract extraction. B-scan ultrasonography, or B-scan, which is a scan that produces a cross-sectional view of the and the.

It is commonly used to see inside the eye when media is hazy due to cataract or any corneal opacity.Pulmonology (lungs) In, endobronchial Ultrasound (EBUS) probes are applied to standard flexible endoscopic probes and used by pulmonologists to allow for direct visualization of endobronchial lesions and lymph nodes prior to transbronchial needle aspiration. Among its many uses, EBUS aids in lung cancer staging by allowing for lymph node sampling without the need for major surgery. Urology (urinary). (black butterfly-like shape) and hyperplastic visualized by medical sonographic techniqueUltrasound is routinely used in to determine, for example, the amount of fluid retained in a patient's bladder. In a pelvic sonogram, organs of the pelvic region are imaged.

This includes the. Males are sometimes given a pelvic sonogram to check on the health of their bladder, the, or their (for example to distinguish from ). In young males, it is used to distinguish more benign testicular masses ( or ) from, which is highly curable but which must be treated to preserve health and fertility. There are two methods of performing a pelvic sonography – externally or internally. The internal pelvic sonogram is performed either trans (in a woman) or transrectally (in a man).

Sonographic imaging of the pelvic floor can produce important diagnostic information regarding the precise relationship of abnormal structures with other pelvic organs and it represents a useful hint to treat patients with symptoms related to pelvic prolapse, double incontinence and obstructed defecation. It is used to diagnose and, at higher frequencies, to treat (break up) kidney stones or kidney crystals. Main article:Ultrasound is an excellent method for the study of the, such as indicated in trauma, priapism, erectile dysfunction or suspected. Musculoskeletal ultrasound in used to examine tendons, muscles, nerves, ligaments, soft tissue masses, and bone surfaces.

Ultrasound is an alternative to x-ray imaging in detecting fractures of the wrist, elbow and shoulder for patients up to 12 years.Quantitative ultrasound is an adjunct musculoskeletal test for myopathic disease in children; estimates of lean body mass in adults; proxy measures of muscle quality (i.e., tissue composition) in older adults withUltrasound can also be used for guidance in muscle or, such as in.Nephrology (kidneys). Main article:In, ultrasonography of the kidneys is essential in the diagnosis and management of kidney-related diseases. The kidneys are easily examined, and most pathological changes in the kidneys are distinguishable with ultrasound. US is an accessible, versatile, inexpensive, and fast aid for decision-making in patients with renal symptoms and for guidance in renal intervention.

Renal ultrasound (US) is a common examination, which has been performed for decades. Using, assessment of renal anatomy is easily performed, and US is often used as image guidance for renal interventions. Furthermore, novel applications in renal US have been introduced with contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS), elastography and fusion imaging. However, renal US has certain limitations, and other modalities, such as CT (CECT) and MRI, should always be considered as supplementary imaging modalities in the assessment of renal disease.

From sound to image The creation of an image from sound is done in three steps – producing a, receiving, and interpreting those echoes.Producing a sound wave. Medical ultrasound scannerA sound wave is typically produced by a encased in a plastic housing. Strong, short electrical pulses from the ultrasound machine drive the transducer at the desired frequency. The can be anywhere between 1 and 18, though frequencies up to 50–100 megahertz have been used experimentally in a technique known as biomicroscopy in special regions, such as the anterior chamber of the eye. Older technology transducers focused their beam with physical lenses. Newer technology transducers use techniques to enable the ultrasound machine to change the direction and depth of focus.The sound is focused either by the shape of the transducer, a lens in front of the transducer, or a complex set of control pulses from the ultrasound scanner, in the technique. This focusing produces an arc-shaped sound wave from the face of the transducer.

The wave travels into the body and comes into focus at a desired depth.Materials on the face of the transducer enable the sound to be transmitted efficiently into the body (often a rubbery coating, a form of ). In addition, a water-based gel is placed between the patient's skin and the probe.The sound wave is partially reflected from the layers between different tissues or scattered from smaller structures. Specifically, sound is reflected anywhere where there are acoustic impedance changes in the body: e.g. In, small structures in organs, etc. Some of the reflections return to the transducer.Receiving the echoes The return of the sound wave to the transducer results in the same process as sending the sound wave, except in reverse. B-flow is a mode that digitally highlights moving reflectors (mainly ) while suppressing the signals from the surrounding stationary tissue. It can visualize flowing blood and surrounding stationary tissues simultaneously.

It is thus an alternative or complement to in visualizing blood flow. C-mode: A C-mode image is formed in a plane normal to a B-mode image. A gate that selects data from a specific depth from an A-mode line is used; then the transducer is moved in the 2D plane to sample the entire region at this fixed depth. When the transducer traverses the area in a spiral, an area of 100 cm 2 can be scanned in around 10 seconds. M-mode: In M-mode (motion mode) ultrasound, pulses are emitted in quick succession – each time, either an A-mode or B-mode image is taken. Over time, this is analogous to recording a in ultrasound.

Duplex scan of the common carotid arteryemploys the to assess whether structures (usually blood) are moving towards or away from the probe, and its relative velocity. By calculating the frequency shift of a particular sample volume, for example flow in an artery or a jet of blood flow over a heart valve, its speed and direction can be determined and visualized. Color Doppler is the measurement of velocity by color scale. Color Doppler images are generally combined with grayscale images to display duplex ultrasonography images. Uses include:., the use of Doppler ultrasonography to examine the. An echocardiogram can, within certain limits, produce accurate assessment of the direction of and the of blood and cardiac tissue at any arbitrary point using the Doppler effect.

Velocity measurements allow assessment of areas and function, any abnormal communications between the left and right side of the heart, any leaking of blood through the valves , calculation of the and calculation of (a measure of ). Contrast-enhanced ultrasound using gas-filled microbubble contrast media can be used to improve velocity or other flow-related medical measurements. (TCD) and transcranial color Doppler (TCCD), which measure the velocity of through the 's transcranially (through the ).

They are used as to help diagnose, from a subarachnoid (bleeding from a ruptured ), and other problems., although usually not technically but rather sound-generating, use the Doppler effect to detect the for. These are hand-held, and some models also display the in beats per minute (BPM). Use of this monitor is sometimes known as Doppler.

The Doppler fetal monitor is commonly referred to simply as a Doppler or fetal Doppler. Doppler fetal monitors provide information about the fetus similar to that provided by a.Contrast ultrasonography (ultrasound contrast imaging). Main article:A for medical ultrasonography is a formulation of encapsulated gaseous microbubbles to increase of blood, discovered by Dr Raymond Gramiak in 1968 and named. This contrast modality is clinically used throughout the world, in particular for in the United States and for in and.Microbubbles-based contrast media is administrated in during the medical ultrasonography examination. Thanks to their size, the microbubbles remain confined in without extravasating towards the. An contrast media is therefore purely intravascular, making it an ideal agent to image microvascularization for purposes. A typical clinical use of contrast ultrasonography is detection of a, which exhibits a contrast uptake (kinetics of microbubbles concentration in blood circulation) faster than healthy surrounding the tumor.

Other clinical applications using contrast exist, such as in to improve delineation of for visually checking contractibility of after a. Finally, applications in quantitative perfusion (relative measurement of ) emerge for identifying early patient response to an anti-cancerous drug treatment (methodology and clinical study by Dr Nathalie Lassau in 2011 ), enabling to determine the best options. Parametric imaging of vascular signatures (diagram)In oncological practice of medical contrast ultrasonography, clinicians use the method of parametric imaging of vascular signatures invented by Dr Nicolas Rognin in 2010. This method is conceived as a aided diagnostic tool, facilitating characterization of a suspicious ( versus ) in an organ. This method is based on medical to analyze a time sequence of ultrasound contrast images, a digital video recorded in real-time during patient examination. Main article:Ultrasound is also used for elastography, which is a relatively new imaging modality that maps the elastic properties of soft tissue. This modality emerged in the last two decades.

Elastography is useful in medical diagnoses as it can discern healthy from unhealthy tissue for specific organs/growths. For example, cancerous tumors will often be harder than the surrounding tissue, and diseased livers are stiffer than healthy ones.There are many ultrasound elastography techniques. Interventional ultrasonography Interventional ultrasonography involves, emptying fluids, intrauterine.: The high frequency thyroid (HFUS) can be used to treat several gland conditions.

The recurrent thyroid cyst that was usually treated in the past with surgery, can be treated effectively by a new procedure called percutaneous ethanol injection, or PEI. With ultrasound guided placement of a 25 gauge needle within the cyst, and after evacuation of the cyst fluid, about 50% of the cyst volume is injected back into the cavity, under strict operator visualization of the needle tip. The procedure is 80% successful in reducing the cyst to minute size.

Metastatic thyroid cancer neck lymph nodes: The other thyroid therapy use for HFUS is to treat metastatic thyroid cancer neck lymph nodes that occur in patients who either refuse surgery, or are no longer a candidate for surgery. Small amounts of ethanol are injected under ultrasound guided needle placement.

A blood flow study is done prior to the injection, by power doppler. The blood flow can be destroyed and the node become inactive, although it may still be there. Power doppler visualized blood flow can be eradicated, and there may be a drop in the cancer blood marker test, TG, as the node become non-functional. Another interventional use for HFUS is to mark a cancer node one hour prior to surgery to help locate the node cluster at the surgery. A minute amount of methylene dye is injected, under careful ultrasound guided placement of the needle on the anterior surface, but not in the node. The dye will be evident to the thyroid surgeon when opening the neck. A similar localization procedure with methylene blue, can be done to locate parathyroid adenomas at surgery.

can be guided by medical ultrasound, such as in.Compression ultrasonography Compression ultrasonography is when the probe is pressed against the skin. This can bring the target structure closer to the probe, increasing spatial resolution of it. Comparison of the shape of the target structure before and after compression can aid in diagnosis.It used in, wherein absence of vein compressibility is a strong indicator of thrombosis. Compression ultrasonography has both high for detecting proximal deep vein thrombosis only in symptomatic patients. Results are not reliable when the patient is symptomless and must be checked, for example in high risk postoperative patients mainly in orthopedic patients.

Compression is used in this ultrasonograph to get closer to the, making the and the look rather flat.Attributes As with all imaging modalities, ultrasonography has its list of positive and negative attributes.Strengths. It images, and bone surfaces very well and is particularly useful for delineating the interfaces between solid and fluid-filled spaces. It renders 'live' images, where the operator can dynamically select the most useful section for diagnosing and documenting changes, often enabling rapid diagnoses.